Christianity
Learning Activities
Liberal Protestantism
History & Beliefs
In the 17th and 18th Centuries, Europe underwent radical changes in thought during the period known as the Age of Enlightenment. Intellectual theories regarding areas of study such as science and philosophy began to prevail within society and simultaneously undermine outdated doctrines of politics and religion.
Advances in technology and scientific theories continued after the Enlightenment and began to gain both popularity and criticism from public and private intellectuals.
In November of 1859, Charles Darwin published his most famous work On the Origin of Species, which explained his theory of evolution based on natural selection. Within a decade the theory was viewed as a fact by many different communities, scientific or not.
The theory of evolution, particularly natural selection, contradicted early Christian scripture such as the creation narrative presented in the Book of Genesis within the Old Testament.
In order to adapt to the changing times and knowledge, liberals developed what is known as “liberation theology” in order to allow religions such as Christianity to enter a more modern context. Liberal Protestantism became an early example of combining Christian principles with modernity.
Friedrich Schleiermacher (1768-1834): German theologian and scholar who is considered by many to be the “Father of Liberal Theology,” his work emphasized that religion could and should be experienced through feeling, not through reason. He attempted to take ideas of the Enlightenment and reconcile them with Protestantism.
Opinions vary in liberation theology, though pertaining to the branch of liberal Protestantism:
The Bible is open to criticism and interpretation, while examining early scripture and the figure of Jesus Christ from a historical perspective rather than simply based in faith.
Instead of being the direct word of God, some liberal Protestants view the Bible as merely scripture about God, through the teachings of Jesus Christ.
Human experience, particularly that of the individual, is emphasized greatly.
Elements of superstition were rejected in light of new knowledge and reason (the miracles of Jesus Christ were seen rather as metaphors).
The teachings of Jesus Christ are a model of ethics and morality for human beings in the context of the society in which they reside.
Liberal Protestantism in the United States
Fundamentalist-Modernist Controversy: During the 1920s and ‘30s in the United States, a major schism occured in light of opposing views within Christianity. Though taking place primarily in the Presbyterian church, liberation theology was at the heart of much of the debate.
Social Gospel: Amidst the transition from the 19th to the 20th Century, this major social movement within Protestantism applied Christian ethics to problems within society such as poverty, inequality, racism, and labor wages.
Visit to Riverside Church
490 Riverside Drive
New York, NY 10027
Website: https://www.trcnyc.org/
Riverside Church is known as one of the most prominent liberal Protestant churches in the U.S. It was funded by Rockefeller fortune and was completed in 1930. Harry Emerson Fosdick was one of the most famous liberal ministers of the early 20th Century and founder of the church.
Fosdick, Harry Emerson. “Shall the Fundamentalists Win?” a sermon preached at Riverside Church in 1922.
King, Jr., Martin Luther. “Beyond Vietnam,” King’s famous anti-war speech delivered at Riverside Church in 1967.
Readings/Resources
Demerath, N. J. "Cultural Victory and Organizational Defeat in the Paradoxical Decline of Liberal Protestantism." Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 34, no. 4 (1995): 458-69. doi:10.2307/1387339.
Johnson, Benton. "Liberal Protestantism: End of the Road?" The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 480 (1985): 39-52. http://www.jstor.org/stable/1045333.
African American Christianity
Richard Allen was born into slavery, but purchased his freedom, became a Methodist preacher, and later established the African Methodist Church after leading a protest walkout against racism at from Philadelphia’s St. George’s Methodist Episcopal Church in the 1780s
African Americans in the U.S. today are not the descendants of immigrants. Their ancestors came to North America in chains on slave ships from West and Central Africa. To gain perspective, view this two-minute interactive graphic. In total, more than 10 million enslaved Africans were brought to the Western Hemisphere from the sixteenth to the mid-twentieth centuries. Approximately 390,000 (4% of the total) were brought to North America. White America’s treatment of African Americans has sometimes been referred to as the nation’s original sin. The Civil War fought to end slavery and the Civil Rights movement to secure political rights were both important, but much work is yet to be done as stystemic racism still permeates many of the nation’s institutions.
The first slave ship arrived in Philadelphia in 1684, just two years after William Penn arrived. Penn’s endorsement of slavery reminds us that even those in the past we view as progressive, are still embedded in social structures built on white supremacy.
Abolition Movement: the Struggle to End Slavery
Some of the earliest people to oppose slavery were Quakers and Mennonites. The first written protest against slavery was the 1688 Germantown Quaker Petition Against Slavery. Benjamin Lay was an early abolitionist who disrupted Quaker meetings and called on his fellow Friends to end the practice. In 1780, Pennsylvania passed the Gradual Abolition Act, which declared that persons of African descent born in Pennsylvania would be free. Slavery would not end in the United States until the end of the Civil War.
Key Figures
Ona Judge - (d. 1848) born into slavery serving as a slave to the President George Washington's household in Philadelphia, she escaped from the President's house and lived her life as a fugitive in New Hampshire.
Richard Allen - (d. 1831) led a walk-out protest from a predominantly white Methodist church and founded the African Methodist Episcopal Church.
Absalom Jones - (d. 1818) first African American ordained as an Episcopal priest.
Jarena Lee - (d. 1864) wrote an account of her religious experience, was licensed to preach by Bishop Allen but was only ordained posthumously by the A.M.E. church in 2016.
Octavius Catto - (d. 1871) African American leader who struggled against segregation and discrimination in transportation, sports, politics, and society; he was murdered on the streets of Philadelphia while fighting for voting rights.
Frederick Douglas - (d. 1895) abolitionist and Christian orator who spoke out against the evils of slavery.
W.E.B. DuBois - (d. 1963) sociologist who wrote a ground-breaking study of African Americans in the city's 7th Ward: The Philadelphia Negro (1899). Read the full-text version, pages 197-234 discuss the social role of the Black church.
Martin Luther King, Jr. - (d. 1968) Baptist preacher and civil rights leader.
Worship Practices
Preaching: often characterized by call and response from the congregation.
Music: Click HERE to learn more about traditional African American music known as spirituals.
Catholicism in the U.S.
Catholics Sites
Cathedral Basilica of Sts. Peter and Paul - 1723 Race St, Philadelphia, PA 19103
Daylesford Abbey (Links to an external site.) - founded in 1954 as the Daylesford Priory at the former Alexander Cassatt Estate in Daylesford, Pennsylvania. The priory moved to Paoli in 1963 where a new building had been constructed. A 700-seat adjoining church was added in 1966.
Click HERE for tips and guidelines for how to visit a Catholic church.
Roman Catholicism
With over a billion devotees worldwide, Roman Catholicism is one of the largest religious denominations on the planet, and the largest branch of Christianity which stems from the teachings of Jesus Christ.
History & Beliefs
The beginning of Roman Catholicism can be traced back to the beginning of what we know as Christianity; that is to say the life and teachings of Jesus Christ, his death, and his resurrection.
Jesus Christ: Also known as Jesus of Nazareth, Christ lived during the 1st Century A.D. and is perceived as the Son of God in Catholic religion. Details on the life of Jesus vary, but many believe that historically Jesus was born a Roman citizen, he was of Jewish descent, and he worked as an artisan/carpenter.
The Virgin Mary: the mother of Christ, giving birth to him on what is now recognized in the Catholic community as the holiday of Christmas.
The Apostles: the original followers of Jesus Christ, and the teachers of his message after his death and resurrection.
Life, Death, and Resurrection: the belief that Jesus was indeed a real person, that he died on the cross and was resurrected three days later; his establishment of Catholic foundations symbolizes the Catholic Church as an extension of his teachings.
Holy Trinity: Catholics believe that God as a supreme deity is composed of three individuals: the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit.
Spread of Christianity: after his death, the life and teachings of Jesus Christ were spread by his apostles, particularly Paul who incorporated people into the sect who were not Jewish, leading to a more inclusive denomination.
Before churches were established in cities, followers of Jesus would conduct early forms of what we now recognize as masses within the confines of their homes.
The Pope and the Vatican: many cite the Gospel of Matthew as being evidence in scripture of a foundation of the role of the papacy, proclaiming Peter as the leader of the church.
The Pope is known as the infallible spiritual authority of Catholicism, residing in Vatican City, the headquarters of the Roman Catholic Church.
Seven Sacraments: established by Jesus Christ and instituted by the Catholic church as a sacred tradition of devotion to the son of God:
Baptism - water ceremony typically done shortly after birth in order for an infant to be relieved of inherent sin and granted access to the kingdom of God.
Eucharist - also known as “communion,” the process of ingesting bread and wine, which are in Catholic faith actually the “body and blood” of Christ.
Confirmation - the understanding and accepting of what it means to be a member of the Catholic church, typically done as the child is older and can appreciate the situation.
These first three sacraments are known as the “Sacraments of Initiation.”
Penance - also known as “confession,” this involves the reconciliation and absolution of sin by a priest in order to be relieved of past wrongdoings.
Anointing of the Sick - also known as “last rites,” this is typically done when an individual is near death, and a priest uses sacred oils and words to comfort and forgive the dying before they pass.
These two sacraments are known as the “Sacraments of Healing.”
Marriage - the sacred bond of holy matrimony held between a baptized man and woman.
Holy Orders - the rising through the ranks within the hierarchy of the church, in which one can become a deacon, priest, or bishop.
These last two sacraments are known as the “Sacraments of Service.”
Catechism of the Catholic Church: a publication that essentially explains the foundations and beliefs of Catholicism and its faith; the writing includes prayers, sacramental teachings, and the Apostle’s Creed.
Catholicism in the United States
As many Europeans were traveling to America in the 16th Century, Catholic missionaries were often greeted with skepticism, contention, and violence by Native Americans. As the colonies were established in later decades, Catholics were treated as minorities and excluded in many of the English colonies.
Coming to the New World to escape the oppression of the Church of England, many colonists were skeptical of Catholics and their Pope. The similarities in elements such as doctrine between the Church of England and Roman Catholicism instilled fear in these Protestant immigrants and established a synonymous relationship between English heritage and anti-Catholic sentiment.
As Protestantism became the majority religious denomination in the newly formed United States after the American Revolution, Cathlic immigration increased in America forming gradual tension between Protestants and Catholics.
Many Catholics were arriving from areas such as Ireland, Germany, and Poland.
All were looking to establish a foundation for themselves and were met with discrimination by Protestants.
In 1844, Philadelphia played host to a series of violent events known as the Bible Riots, which illustrated the height of anti-Catholic sentiment in the United States. (See separate case study)
As immigrants arrived and settled, many Catholic churches differed in either promoting ethnic or territorial parishes:
Ethnic parishes welcomed members of one language group i.e. Polish, Italian, German, Irish, etc.
Territorial parishes reached out to all who lived in the neighborhood around the church.
As years passed, Catholicism not only increased in popularity but also modernized with the times and established itself with prominence within the United States.
Readings/Resources
Casanova, José. "Roman and Catholic and American: The Transformation of Catholicism in the United States." International Journal of Politics, Culture, and Society 6, no. 1 (1992): 75-111. http://www.jstor.org.libproxy.temple.edu/stable/20007073.
Cummings, Kathleen Sprows. "American Saints: Gender and the Re-Imaging of U.S. Catholicism in the Early Twentieth Century." Religion and American Culture: A Journal of Interpretation 22, no. 2 (2012): 203-31. doi:10.1525/rac.2012.22.2.203.
Hirschman, Charles. "The Role of Religion in the Origins and Adaptation of Immigrant Groups in the United States." The International Migration Review 38, no. 3 (2004): 1206-233. http://www.jstor.org.libproxy.temple.edu/stable/27645430.
Dolan, Jay P. The American Catholic Experience: A History from Colonial Times to the Present. Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1985.
Matovina, Timothy. “Remapping American Catholicism.” U.S. Catholic Historian 28, No. 4. Remembering the Past, Engaging the Present: Essays in Honor of Moises Sandoval (FAll 2010): 31-72. Link to full text HERE.
McGreevy, John T. Catholicism and American Freedom: A History. W. W. Norton & Company, 2003.
Orsi, Robert. The Madonna of 115th Street: Faith and Community in Italian Harlem, 1880-1950, Third Edition. Yale University Press, 2010.
Swidler, Leonard. “Human Rights and Religious Liberty – From the Past to the Future,” In Religious Liberty and Human Rights, 1986.
Eastern Orthodox
History
Eastern Orthodox is one of the three main groups representing Christianity: Eastern Orthodox, Roman Catholic, and Protestant. The notion of “eastern” refers to the origins in traditions from Eastern European areas such as Russia and Greece, and areas of the Middle East as well. Titles are deemed by geographical location and cultural beliefs, rather than national context.
The word “orthodox” in Greek translates as “right belief.”
Geological location became a determining factor of the split between Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox with Emperor Constantine’s capital moved to Constantinople, becoming the center to eastern Christianity.
Roman Catholics utilized Latin as their native language, while Eastern Orthodox utilized Greek.
Eastern Orthodox represents separate traditions than Oriental Orthodox (Armenian, Ethiopian, Malankara)
The Great Schism of 1054: Christian doctrine was determined at a series of conferences known as the Ecumenical Councils, specifically the first seven. Within these meetings, the main purpose was to create a unified Christian religion, combining several different branches at the time. After the seventh council in 787 CE, divisions in thoughts and opinions began to arise more prominently.
Differences in theological principles and political agendas contributed to the split in 1054 between the Greek East and the Latin West, resulting in the excommunication of Patriarch Michael I Cerularius (East), and the separation of two major branches of Christianity (East and West).
The Crusades in the aftermath of the schism played a role in the relations between Eastern and Western Christians, specifically the Sack of Constinople in 1204 during the Fourth Crusade.
The effects of the schism would last until the 20th Century with the Catholic-Orthodox Joint Declaration of 1965 which did not end the schism, but withdrew excommunications laid down in the 11th Century. The declaration was made by Roman Catholic Pope Paul VI and Ecumenical Patriarch Athenagoras I.
In 1980 the Joint International Commission for Theological Dialogue Between the Catholic Church and the Orthodox Church was founded.
Currently the Eastern Orthodox Church has approximately 230 million members, making it the second-largest Christian church in the world.
Beliefs/Principles
Eastern Orthodox theology is technically classified as monotheistic Trinitarianism, believing that God is divided into the “Holy Trinity” yet is based in one sacred essence.
Rather than having a head of the church such as the Roman Catholic Pope, Eastern Orthodox churches believe that Christ himself is the head of the church. Administration is done through people such as patriarchs, but known are considered supreme.
Holy Synod: group of administrative bishops tasked with such actions as picking the next patriarch.
Eastern Orthodox religion is known for being autocephalous (Greek for “self-headed”).
Children are immediately included in Eastern Orthodox traditions from the time of their birth, receiving communion much earlier than those in the Roman Catholic faith.
Orthodox Christians typically fast for nearly half of the year, staying true to older expectations of the religion set down centuries ago.
Iconography is a prominent staple of many Eastern Orthodox churches, and caused great controversy prior to the Schism of 1054.
Eastern Orthodox in Philadelphia
Ukranian Catholic Archeparchy of Philadelphia - 810 N. Franklin Street, Philadelphia, PA 19123.
St. Mary's Malankara Syrian Orthodox Cathedral - 1333 Welsh Road, Huntingdon Valley, PA, 19006
St. Andrew's Russian Orthodox Cathedral - 707 N. 5th Street, Philadelphia, PA, 19123
St. George Greek Orthodox Cathedral - 256 S. 8th Street, Philadelphia, PA, 19107
Holy Trinity Romanian Orthodox Church - 723 N. Bodine Street, Philadelphia, PA, 19123
Readings/Resources
Erickson, John H. Orthodox Christians in America: A Short History (Religion in American Life). Oxford University Press, 2007.
Krindatch, Alexei D., and Dean R. Hoge. "Satisfaction and Morale Among Parish Clergy: What American Catholic and Orthodox Priests Can Learn from Each Other." Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 49, no. 1 (2010): 179-87. www.jstor.org/stable/40664684.
Prodromou, Elizabeth H. "Religious Pluralism in Twenty-First-Century America: Problematizing the Implications for Orthodoxy Christianity." Journal of the American Academy of Religion 72, no. 3 (2004): 733-57. Accessed July 17, 2020. www.jstor.org/stable/40005913.
Roberson, Ronald G. "The Dialogues of the Catholic Church with the Separated Eastern Churches." U.S. Catholic Historian 28, no. 2 (2010): 135-52. www.jstor.org/stable/40731267.
Evangelicalism
“At its most basic level, evangelical Christianity is characterized by a belief in the literal truth of the Bible, a “personal relationship with Jesus Christ,” the importance of encouraging others to be “born again” in Jesus and a lively worship culture. This characterization is true regardless the size of the church, what the people sitting in the pews look like or how they express their beliefs. Evangelical institutions include not only churches but also primary schools and universities, large and small non-profit organizations, media companies and several political groups.
Though its history in America is much longer, Evangelicalism began to significantly influence American politics and culture in the 1970s, culminating with the Reagan Revolution and the rise of the Religious Right. Today its influence continues to extend well beyond its own religious orbit. In Southern California, we are watching how both megachurches and small communities of young evangelicals are adapting to new social and cultural challenges.” - USC Center for Religion and Civic Culture studies
The Many Faces of American Evangelicalism by Timothy D. Hall
“Historian David Bebbington identifies four major impulses that link different strands of evangelicalism and set evangelicals apart from other kinds of Christians. "Conversionism" is the belief that salvation comes through a personal experience of divine forgiveness and embrace. For over two centuries evangelicals have called this the "New Birth" and described themselves as "born again." A second impulse, "Biblicism," entails reliance on the Bible as the ultimate authority in religious belief and practice. Evangelicals are also "activists," both in proclaiming their message of salvation and engaging in humanitarian, social, and political action. The final impulse focuses on the cross, on which Jesus died on humanity's behalf (1). Meanwhile, historian Mark Noll observes that evangelicalism's conversionism, biblicism, activism, and focus on the cross have never produced "easily definable, well-coordinated, or clearly demarcated groups of Christians" (2).”
Citation
Hall, Timothy D. "The Many Faces of American Evangelicalism." OAH Magazine of History 22, no. 1 (2008): 38-42.
Resources
Balmer, Randall. Mine Eyes Have Seen the Glory: A Journey into the Evangelical Subculture in America. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 2006.
Loveland, Anne C. and Otis B. Wheeler. From Meetinghouse to Megachurch: A Material and Cultural History. Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 2003.
Marsden, George M. Understanding Fundamentalism and Evangelicalism. Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans, 1991.
Noll, Mark A. American Evangelical Christianity: An Introduction. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers, 2001.
Smith, Christian. Christian America? What Evangelicals Really Want. Berkeley University of California Press, 2000.
Evangelical Churches in Philadelphia
123 E Wyoming Avenue, Philadelphia, PA 19120
4017 Chestnut St, Philadelphia, PA 19104
(215) 243.3630 | info@cccphila.org
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