Native American Religions
Background/Basic Information:
Creating a definition of one universal “Native American religion” is impossible; every native tribe throughout the country incorporates different values, traditions and teachings into their own unique religious beliefs.
Tribes vary in their theories of creation, how nature and human beings came to exist and where they originated from. Different traditions utilize different gods (The Great Creator, Great Spirit, Earth Mother).
Spirituality factored into all aspects of daily life; the natural and supernatural worlds were one in the same, thus incorporating religion into everything.
Traditions took on many similar forms between tribes: ceremonial dances, tribal gatherings and sacrifices of goods were most prominent.
Sacred gatherings and insights were led by different members of the tribe (a medicine man or shaman) who possessed the power to engage the supernatural more strongly, through visions and dreams.
Most, if not all Native American religions, functioned under some form of belief in animism. Tendency for tribes to hold polytheistic views led to many early settlers perceiving them as paganistic, therefore different and dangerous.
Animism illustrates the belief that a living spirit resides in all things, living or not. Animals, materials, elements of nature such as the sun and the moon, all possessed an individual spirit.
Nature is an integral role in spirituality, geography dictating traditions and cultures born out of a constant sense of gratitude; different natural entities played a crucial role in ceremony and worship (Mother Earth, sun and moon gods).
Specifics of any Native American religious or spiritual practices were rarely recorded; oral history passed down through generations was utilized to maintain the upkeep of traditions.
How has the unjust treatment of Native Americans from the Colonial Era to present day denied us more in-depth knowledge concerning tribes and their religious practices?
Native American culture and religion is still prominent in the United States today, having been passed down through generations. List of Federal and State Recognized Tribes
The Native American Church (NAC), or the practice of Peyotism, is one of the most influential religious practices among tribes in the United States today. Officially chartered in the early 20th Century, it integrates Christian principles with ancient tribal traditions and rituals.
Lectures
Readings/Resources
Aldred, Lisa. "Plastic Shamans and Astroturf Sun Dances: New Age Commercialization of Native American Spirituality." American Indian Quarterly 24, no. 3 (2000): 329-52. www.jstor.org/stable/1185908.
Doty, William G. "WE ARE ALL RELATIVES: The Significance of Native American Religions." Soundings: An Interdisciplinary Journal 81, no. 3/4 (1998): 513-51. www.jstor.org/stable/41178851.
Echo-Hawk, Walter R. "Under Native American Skies." The George Wright Forum 26, no. 3 (2009): 58-79. www.jstor.org/stable/43598120.
Forbes, Jack D. "Indigenous Americans: Spirituality and Ecos." Daedalus 130, no. 4 (2001): 283-300. www.jstor.org/stable/20027728.
Irwin, Lee. "Freedom, Law, and Prophecy: A Brief History of Native American Religious Resistance." American Indian Quarterly 21, no. 1 (1997): 35-55. doi:10.2307/1185587.
Wiedman, Dennis. "Upholding Indigenous Freedoms of Religion and Medicine: Peyotists at the 1906–1908 Oklahoma Constitutional Convention and First Legislature." American Indian Quarterly 36, no. 2 (2012): 215-46. doi:10.5250/amerindiquar.36.2.0215.
The Pluralism Project: First Encounters: Native Americans and Christians, Harvard University.
The Pluralism Project: Native American Church, Harvard University.
Different Tribes, Different Religions
Iroquois
Found in the northeastern area of North America, particularly upstate New York and Canada, the Iroquois Confederacy consisted of about six different tribal nations including the Mohawk and the Cayuga. Living in a matrilineal society, women played a crucial role in the social hierarchy. Food was mostly obtained from agriculture, and longhouses were typical types of architecture constructed by the tribes.
Like many indigenous religions, the Iroquois maintained a polytheistic set of beliefs, and heavily relied on the essence of nature. The Iroquois, like many Native Americans, believe in some variation of the “Great Spirit,” the creator of all things. Creation myths vary depending on the tribes.
In the beginning, according to Iroquois legend, there was the “Sky World,”inhabited by the peaceful population of the Sky People. At the center of the realm was a tree that gave light to all things, known by some as the “celestial tree.” The creation of the Earth came about when the “Sky Woman” fell from this supernatural realm and landed on mud present on the back of a turtle, forming the foundation for the planet.
Orenda is the spiritual energy that is said to manifest itself within all things.
In the later half of the 18th Century, a Seneca visionary named Handsome Lake began to preach a religious message that combined religious beliefs of white settlers with Iroquois myths, thus creating what was referred to as the “New Religion, “ or “Gaiwiio.”
Within this new message, he stressed upon ending practices of witchcraft and indulging in alcoholic substances.
Chinook
Located in the Pacific Northwest of North America, specifically Washington and Oregon, the Chinook were known for their excellent fishing and trading skills. Having been disrupted by American explorers and settlers, many historical accounts are taken from secondhand experience rather than from within the tribes themselves.
Believing in the idea of the “Great Spirit,” the Chinook manifest their religion around the idea that spirits protect them from harm, and are all rooted in different animals or natural elements. Through this protection, they are able to survive and thrive in their environment, and keep their lineage alive for generations to come.
Respect for animals, even those consumed, is essential in Chinook spirituality; particularly the salmon, which is the main source of sustenance for the tribe. Though eventually eaten, the salmon is seen as a direct gift from the “Great Spirit” and subsequently treated as sacred.
The First-Salmon Rite is one of the most important rituals for the Chinook. It marks the beginning of the salmon run, and is perceived as a good omen from the spirits.
It was believed that once consumed, the spirits of the salmon would take human form and dwell in the ocean.
Another form of ceremonial tradition was the potlatch, a gathering which promoted gift-giving, dancing, and gratitude for the life that the “Great Spirit” has granted the tribe.
Comanche
Encompassing much of Texas and other areas of the Great Plains, the Comanche were known for their expanding territory and frequent raiding of other Native American tribes and European/American colonists. While not always hostile, they did also value their religious and spiritual beliefs highly and incorporated them into every aspect of life, similar to many other indigenous people.
Animism was an underlying theme of the Comanche belief system, believing that there was a spiritual essence in everything. They also trusted in the deity of a “Great Spirit,” who they referred to as “Manitou.”
Belief fueled any and all actions taken by the tribe, and as a result ceremonies were cultivated in order to pay tribute to the spirits for events such as a bountiful harvest or a victorious battle.
Feeling that they were justified in all of their actions due to the spirits watching over and guiding them, they were merciless in their convictions and maintained a reputation as fierce adversaries to anyone who opposed them.
What parallels can be made between the Comanche spiritual conviction and the idea of Manifest Destiny?
Cherokee
Located primarily in the American southeast, many Cherokees were doomed to travel on the “Trail of Tears” as a result of the Indian Removal Act of 1830 by Andrew Jackson. Today they can be found in areas of Oklahoma, North Carolina and Tennessee. Primarily an agricultural community, Cherokee tribes depended primarily on food such as corn, or maize, to sustain themselves. Deeply rooted in the ways of nature, members of the tribe maintained harmony with all natural elements and creatures.
The Green Corn Ceremony was an annual and sacred festival that marked the beginning of a new agricultural season, thus playing a crucial role in not only their religious traditions, but in the overall social atmosphere. Members will not partake in the new crop until purified and renewed during the course of the gathering.
Throughout the ceremony everything is purified: homes and other buildings are cleaned out, the body is purified through rituals such as fasting or certain types of bathing, emotional renewal is made through amends and reconciliation.
Selu, the “Corn Mother,” is honored at this ceremony; through her constant sacrifice, she provides the corn that nourishes the tribe. Her and another spirit named Kanati, the “Great Hunter,” represented standards for how the tribe was to live, illustrating the concept of complementarity in gender roles and other aspects.
Lenni Lenape
Inhabiting the areas of the northeast United States including New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, and New York, the Lenni Lenape (or the Delaware, as they were also known) now can also be found in areas such as Oklahoma and Wisconsin, having also suffered the fate of being subject to removal during and after the Jacksonian Era. Typically matrilineal, there were three different clans that made up the Lenni Lenape, and through the female lineage members could trace back their ancestry; the clans were wolf, turkey, and turtle. Through the large expansion of the native nation prior to European Colonialism, two main Algonquin dialects were spoken by the tribe: unami and munsee. Like many Native American religions, the Lenni Lenape believed in the concept that the earth was created by a “Great Spirit,” and that there were spirits all around them and an evil counterpart to their creator.
Religious practices and services were designated to be done by certain members of the tribe. Mentinuwak were the shamans that led religious traditions, contacted spirits and provided guidance to others. Healing or medical treatment (done with herbs and natural remedies) were provided by nentpikes.
Kishelmukong, was the name used by the Lenape to refer to the “Great Spirit,” or “creator who lives in 12th heaven.” Though thought to be the ultimate ruler, the Lenni Lenape were polytheistic like most native people and believed in many spirits who rule over nature and give things life (animism), known as manitowak. Presiding solely over the manitowak was their chief, Manito. These spirits were greatly revered in rituals and ceremonies.
Out of the many manitowak believed in, the four most renowned were the spirits that ruled over the North, South, East, and West.
One of the most important rituals for young boys in the tribe was referred to as the vision quest, during which a boy would fast and meditate while in the forest away from his tribe, thus summoning what would be his guardian spirit, usually in the form of an animal. This was seen as a rite of passage for boys and would aid them in becoming hunters and providers for their people.
Navajo
One of the oldest Native American nations within the United States, the Navajo originated within the southwestern states including Arizona, Mexico, and parts of Colorado and Utah. The Navajo people, or the “Diné,” currently inhabit the largest amount of territory in the country belonging to indigenous people. Navajo religion states that the first tribes of the nation passed through three different worlds before arriving on Earth, or the “Fourth World” (also known as the “Glittering World”). There are two classes of people: Earth people and Holy people. Holy people aid Earth people in maintaining balance between themselves and all natural things.
The harmony between Mother Earth, Father Sky and all other natural beings is crucial in Navajo culture.
Hogan: a tradition ceremonial structure used to perform sacred rituals or healings, located somewhere on the reservation.
The number “four” is significant in Navajo tradition. The Holy people were said to have created the Four Sacred Mountains in each of the four directions and designated them not simply by name but with four different colors. These mountains mark the territory known as Navajoland, developed at the beginning of time.
Mount Hesperus to the North (Black)
Mount Taylor to the South (Turquoise)
Mount Blanca to the East (White)
San Francisco Peak to the West (Yellow)
